Seven Bridges of Königsberg

Euclid's fifth postulate, the parallel postulate, is the axiom that defines Euclidean geometry: it states that if a line intersects two other lines, and the interior angles on one side sum to less than two right angles (\(\alpha + \beta < 180^\circ\)), then the two lines will eventually intersect on that side. This postulate guarantees a unique parallel line through a point not on a given line.

The Platonic solids are the only five convex regular polyhedra: a regular polyhedron has congruent regular polygonal faces and the same number of faces meeting at each vertex. The five solids are the tetrahedron (4 faces), cube (6 faces), octahedron (8 faces), dodecahedron (12 faces), and icosahedron (20 faces). Their symmetry and properties have been studied since antiquity.

Also known as the method of indivisibles, this principle states that if two solids lying between two parallel planes have the property that every plane parallel to the two given planes intersects them in cross-sections of equal area, then the two solids have equal volumes. It provides a powerful method for calculating volumes of complex shapes without calculus.

A fundamental theorem in topology and geometry stating that for any convex polyhedron, the number of vertices (V), edges (E), and faces (F) are related by the formula \(V - E + F = 2\). This value, 2, is the Euler characteristic of a sphere, revealing a deep topological property independent of the polyhedron's specific shape.

One of the earliest problems in geometric probability, it is considered a precursor to the Monte Carlo method. It involves dropping a needle of length \(l\) onto a floor with parallel lines a distance \(t\) apart. The probability that the needle will cross a line is \(P = \frac{2l}{\pi t}\) (for \(l \le t\)). This provides a physical experiment to estimate \(\pi\).

A standard approach for approximating solutions to overdetermined systems by finding model parameters that minimize the sum of the squared differences between observed and predicted values. This sum is known as the sum of squared residuals (SSR). The goal is to find the parameters \(\hat{\beta}\) that minimize the function \(S(\beta) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - x_i^T \beta)^2\).

Euclid's five postulates form the axiomatic basis for Euclidean geometry as described in his treatise, 'Elements'. They are fundamental assumptions from which all other theorems are logically derived. The first four concern the construction of lines and circles, while the fifth, the parallel postulate, uniquely defines the flat, non-curved nature of Euclidean space. These axioms established the deductive method in mathematics.

A fundamental theorem in Euclidean geometry states that the sum of the measures of the three interior angles of any triangle is always equal to two right angles, or 180 degrees. This property, \(\alpha + \beta + \gamma = 180^\circ\), is a direct consequence of the parallel postulate and holds true for all triangles, regardless of their size or shape, within a flat, Euclidean plane.

The Pythagorean theorem is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right-angled triangle. It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. The formula is expressed as \(a^2 + b^2 = c^2\).

The Cartesian coordinate system provides an algebraic model for Euclidean geometry. It uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point in space. In a plane, two perpendicular lines (the x-axis and y-axis) are used, allowing geometric shapes to be described by algebraic equations. This fusion of algebra and geometry is known as analytic geometry.

A second-order linear hyperbolic partial differential equation that governs the propagation of various types of waves. In its simplest form, it is written as \(\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 u\), where \(u(\vec{x},t)\) is the amplitude of the wave, \(c\) is the wave speed, and \(\nabla^2\) is the Laplace operator. It models phenomena like vibrating strings, sound waves, and light waves.

The Euler characteristic is a topological invariant, a number that describes a topological space's structure or shape regardless of how it is bent. For polyhedra, it is defined by the formula \(\chi = V - E + F\), where V, E, and F are the number of vertices, edges, and faces, respectively. For a sphere, \(\chi = 2\), while for a torus, \(\chi = 0\).

A second-order linear elliptic partial differential equation that describes systems in a steady-state or equilibrium condition. It is written as \(nabla^2 u = 0\) or \(Delta u = 0\), where \(nabla^2\) (or \(Delta\)) is the Laplace operator. Solutions, called harmonic functions, are the smoothest possible functions and represent potentials in fields like electrostatics, gravitation, and fluid flow.

A fundamental second-order linear parabolic partial differential equation describing heat distribution or other diffusion processes. Its canonical form is \(\frac{partial u}{partial t} = \alpha \nabla^2 u\), where \(u(\vec{x},t)\) is temperature, \(t\) is time, and \(\alpha\) is thermal diffusivity. Solutions model how an initial temperature distribution evolves, smoothing out irregularities over time and approaching a steady state.