MTT 检测法测定细胞活力

The alpha-helix ([latex]\alpha[/latex]-helix) is a common secondary structure motif in proteins. It is a right-handed coiled conformation in which every backbone N-H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located four residues earlier ([latex]i+4 \rightarrow i[/latex] hydrogen bonding). This regular pattern pulls the polypeptide chain into a helical shape.

Insulin is synthesized in pancreatic beta cells as a single-chain precursor called proinsulin. In the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin folds and forms its disulfide bonds. It is then transported to the Golgi apparatus and packaged into secretory granules, where proteases (prohormone convertases PC1/3 and PC2, and carboxypeptidase E) cleave it into mature insulin and a connecting peptide, C-peptide.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology involves joining together DNA molecules from two different species. The recombinant DNA is inserted into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations. This is achieved using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and DNA ligase to join the fragments, often incorporating the desired gene into a plasmid vector for cloning.

Insulin initiates its effects by binding to the insulin receptor (IR), a receptor tyrosine kinase. This binding triggers autophosphorylation of the receptor, creating docking sites for insulin receptor substrate (IRS) proteins. Phosphorylated IRS proteins then activate downstream pathways, primarily the PI3K/Akt pathway, which mediates most of insulin's metabolic effects, including the translocation of GLUT4 glucose transporters to the cell membrane.

The Calvin cycle, or light-independent reactions, uses the ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stage to convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic sugar molecules. This process occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. The key enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes the first step: the fixation of [latex]CO_2[/latex] into an organic molecule, initiating a cycle that produces carbohydrates.

Translation is the biological process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins. It follows transcription, where the DNA sequence is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. During translation, the ribosome reads the mRNA sequence in three-nucleotide units called codons, and with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA), assembles the corresponding amino acid chain.

SAL 是一种量化指标，代表灭菌后单个存活微生物在物品上存活的概率。医疗器械通常要求的 SAL 为 [latex]10^{-6}[/latex]，即百万分之一的几率出现非无菌装置。这种概率方法承认绝对无菌是无法证明的，只能通过工艺验证进行统计推断。

自然杀伤 (NK) 细胞是先天免疫系统中的细胞毒性淋巴细胞，对早期防御病毒感染和癌症至关重要。与 T 细胞不同，它们不需要事先致敏。NK 细胞通过“缺失自我”识别机制识别并杀死 MHC I 类分子表达下调的靶细胞（这是肿瘤和病毒常见的免疫逃避策略），并通过穿孔素和颗粒酶诱导细胞凋亡。

仿生学是一种创新方法，通过模仿自然界久经考验的模式和策略，寻求可持续的解决方案来应对人类面临的挑战。其核心理念是，自然界经过38亿年的进化，已经解决了我们面临的许多问题。仿生学涉及观察和学习生物体和生态系统的设计和过程，以创造更具可持续性的设计。