Measurement via the Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE)

In electrochemical cells like batteries and fuel cells, EMF is generated by chemical reactions. The separation of charge is driven by oxidation and reduction reactions occurring at two different electrodes. The maximum EMF of a cell is related to the change in Gibbs free energy (\(\Delta G\)) of the reaction by \(\mathcal{E} = -\frac{\Delta G}{nF}\), where \(n\) is moles of electrons and \(F\) is the Faraday constant.

The Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are time-averaged equations of motion for turbulent fluid flow. This approach, called Reynolds decomposition, separates flow variables into a mean and a fluctuating component. The averaging process introduces an additional term, the Reynolds stress tensor, which represents the effect of turbulence and must be modeled to achieve closure, making simulations computationally tractable.

The Zeeman effect is the splitting of an atomic spectral line into multiple components when an external static magnetic field is applied. This splitting occurs because the magnetic field interacts with the magnetic dipole moment associated with the atom's orbital and spin angular momentum, shifting the energy levels of its electrons, a phenomenon crucial for probing atomic structure.

Sublimation is a laboratory technique for purifying compounds, particularly volatile solids. The impure solid is gently heated, often under reduced pressure, causing it to sublime directly into a gas. This gas then deposits as a pure solid on a cooled surface, known as a cold finger, leaving the non-volatile impurities behind in the original container.

The color temperature is a characteristic of visible light that measures its hue on a scale from warm (yellowish) to cool (bluish). It is defined as the temperature of an ideal black-body radiator that radiates light of a comparable hue to that of the light source. The unit of measurement is kelvin (K).

The Nernst equation relates the reduction potential of a half-cell (or the total voltage of an electrochemical cell) to the standard electrode potential, temperature, and the activities (often approximated by concentrations) of the chemical species undergoing redox. The equation is \(E = E^{\circ} - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln Q\), where Q is the reaction quotient.

Motional EMF is generated when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The magnetic component of the Lorentz force, \(\mathbf{F} = q(\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})\), acts on the charge carriers within the conductor, causing them to move and create a charge separation. This separation establishes an electric field and a potential difference. The resulting EMF is given by the line integral \(\mathcal{E} = \oint (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) \cdot d\mathbf{l}\).

The Hampson-Linde cycle liquefies gases like air using the Joule-Thomson effect combined with regenerative cooling. High-pressure gas is cooled in a counter-flow heat exchanger by the cold, low-pressure gas returning from the expansion valve. This progressively lowers the temperature at the valve until it drops below the critical point and liquefaction begins, forming the basis for the modern gas liquefaction industry.

In a system at thermodynamic equilibrium, the electrochemical potential, \(\bar{\mu}_i\), for any given charged species `i` must be uniform throughout all phases. If a gradient exists (\(\nabla \bar{\mu}_i \neq 0\)), ions will spontaneously move from regions of higher potential to lower potential, creating a current or flux, until this gradient is eliminated and equilibrium is re-established.

Thermite possesses a very high activation energy, making it stable at room temperature and difficult to ignite. Ignition requires reaching temperatures of approximately 1,300 °C (2,400 °F). This is typically achieved not with a direct flame but with an intermediate, high-temperature initiator like a burning magnesium ribbon or a specially designed pyrotechnic fuse, which provides the necessary localized energy to start the reaction.

The principles of Mohr's circle can also be directly applied to analyze the two-dimensional state of strain at a point. By replacing normal stress (\(\sigma\)) with normal strain (\(\epsilon\)) and shear stress (\(\tau\)) with half the shear strain (\(\gamma/2\)), an analogous circle can be constructed. This graphical tool helps determine principal strains and the maximum shear strain.