Equivalence Principle

Energy is not continuous but comes in discrete packets called quanta. The energy \(E\) of a single quantum of electromagnetic radiation (a photon) is directly proportional to its frequency \(\nu\). This relationship is defined by the Planck-Einstein relation, \(E = h\nu\), where \(h\) is the Planck constant. This concept fundamentally challenged classical physics.

A statistical ensemble is a conceptual tool consisting of a large number of virtual copies of a system, each representing a possible microstate. By averaging properties over all systems in the ensemble, one can calculate macroscopic observables. The main types are the microcanonical (isolated system with fixed N, V, E), canonical (closed system, fixed N, V, T), and grand canonical (open system, fixed µ, V, T).

A key prediction of general relativity is that time passes at different rates in different gravitational potentials. A clock in a stronger gravitational field (closer to a massive object) will tick slower than a clock in a weaker field. This effect, known as gravitational time dilation, has been experimentally verified and is a crucial factor in modern technology like GPS.

The Einstein Field Equations (EFE) are a set of ten coupled, non-linear partial differential equations that form the core of general relativity. They describe the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy. The equation is concisely written as \(G_{\mu\nu} + \Lambda g_{\mu\nu} = \frac{8\pi G}{c^4} T_{\mu\nu}\), relating spacetime geometry to its energy-momentum content.

The Kutta-Joukowski theorem quantifies the lift force generated by an airfoil. It states that the lift per unit span (\(L'\)) is directly proportional to the fluid density (\(\rho\)), the free-stream velocity (\(V\)), and the circulation (\(\Gamma\)) around the body: \(L' = \rho V \Gamma\). This links the abstract concept of circulation to the physical force of lift.

The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl, this concept simplifies fluid dynamics problems by dividing the flow into two regions: the thin boundary layer where viscosity dominates and the outer region where inviscid flow theory can be applied.

The von Mises yield criterion predicts that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second deviatoric stress invariant, \(J_2\), reaches a critical value. It is often expressed in terms of the von Mises stress, \(\sigma_v\), a scalar value that must be less than the material's yield strength, \(\sigma_y\). Yielding occurs when \(\sigma_v = \sigma_y\).

General relativity provided the first accurate explanation for the anomalous precession of Mercury's perihelion. Newtonian gravity could not fully account for the slow, gradual shift in the orientation of Mercury's elliptical orbit. Einstein's theory correctly predicted the missing 43 arcseconds per century, attributing it to the curvature of spacetime around the Sun, a major early triumph for the theory.

A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even light—can escape. The boundary of this region is called the event horizon. Predicted by general relativity as a solution to the field equations, a black hole is the result of the complete gravitational collapse of a massive star.