Buffon’s Needle Problem

Also known as the method of indivisibles, this principle states that if two solids lying between two parallel planes have the property that every plane parallel to the two given planes intersects them in cross-sections of equal area, then the two solids have equal volumes. It provides a powerful method for calculating volumes of complex shapes without calculus.

This is a historically notable problem in mathematics. Its negative resolution by Leonhard Euler in 1736 laid the foundations of graph theory and prefigured the idea of topology. The problem asked if the seven bridges of the city of Königsberg could all be traversed in a single trip without doubling back, with the trip ending on the same landmass it began.

A fundamental theorem in topology and geometry stating that for any convex polyhedron, the number of vertices (V), edges (E), and faces (F) are related by the formula \(V - E + F = 2\). This value, 2, is the Euler characteristic of a sphere, revealing a deep topological property independent of the polyhedron's specific shape.

A fundamental second-order linear parabolic partial differential equation describing heat distribution or other diffusion processes. Its canonical form is \(\frac{partial u}{partial t} = \alpha \nabla^2 u\), where \(u(\vec{x},t)\) is temperature, \(t\) is time, and \(\alpha\) is thermal diffusivity. Solutions model how an initial temperature distribution evolves, smoothing out irregularities over time and approaching a steady state.

A fundamental solution of a linear partial differential operator \(L\) is a solution to the equation \(Lu = delta(x)\), where \(delta(x)\) is the Dirac delta function. It represents the response of the system to a point source or impulse. Once known, the solution to the inhomogeneous equation \(Lu = f(x)\) can be found by convolution: \(u(x) = (G * f)(x)\), where \(G\) is the fundamental solution.

De Morgan's laws are a pair of transformation rules in Boolean algebra that are fundamental to digital circuit design. The first law states that the negation of a conjunction is the disjunction of the negations: \(\neg(P \land Q) \iff (\neg P) \lor (\neg Q)\). The second states that the negation of a disjunction is the conjunction of the negations: \(\neg(P \lor Q) \iff (\neg P) \land (\neg Q)\).

The Pythagorean theorem is a fundamental relation in Euclidean geometry among the three sides of a right-angled triangle. It states that the area of the square whose side is the hypotenuse (the side opposite the right angle) is equal to the sum of the areas of the squares on the other two sides. The formula is expressed as \(a^2 + b^2 = c^2\).

The Cartesian coordinate system provides an algebraic model for Euclidean geometry. It uses one or more numbers, or coordinates, to uniquely determine the position of a point in space. In a plane, two perpendicular lines (the x-axis and y-axis) are used, allowing geometric shapes to be described by algebraic equations. This fusion of algebra and geometry is known as analytic geometry.

A second-order linear hyperbolic partial differential equation that governs the propagation of various types of waves. In its simplest form, it is written as \(\frac{\partial^2 u}{\partial t^2} = c^2 \nabla^2 u\), where \(u(\vec{x},t)\) is the amplitude of the wave, \(c\) is the wave speed, and \(\nabla^2\) is the Laplace operator. It models phenomena like vibrating strings, sound waves, and light waves.

The Euler characteristic is a topological invariant, a number that describes a topological space's structure or shape regardless of how it is bent. For polyhedra, it is defined by the formula \(\chi = V - E + F\), where V, E, and F are the number of vertices, edges, and faces, respectively. For a sphere, \(\chi = 2\), while for a torus, \(\chi = 0\).

A second-order linear elliptic partial differential equation that describes systems in a steady-state or equilibrium condition. It is written as \(nabla^2 u = 0\) or \(Delta u = 0\), where \(nabla^2\) (or \(Delta\)) is the Laplace operator. Solutions, called harmonic functions, are the smoothest possible functions and represent potentials in fields like electrostatics, gravitation, and fluid flow.

Theorema Egregium (Latin for "Remarkable Theorem") states that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is an intrinsic property. This means it depends only on how distances are measured on the surface itself, not on how the surface is embedded in three-dimensional space. A flat sheet of paper can be rolled into a cylinder but not a sphere without stretching.

The Gauss-Bonnet theorem connects the geometry of a compact two-dimensional surface to its topology. It states that the integral of the Gaussian curvature \(K\) over the entire surface \(M\) is equal to \(2\pi\) times the Euler characteristic \(\chi(M)\) of the surface. The formula is \(\int_M K \, dA = 2\pi \chi(M)\).

Accuracy refers to the closeness of a measured value to a standard or known true value. Precision refers to the closeness of two or more measurements to each other. A measurement system can be precise but not accurate, accurate but not precise, neither, or both. These two concepts are independent of each other in measurement theory.