Abstraction (OOP programming)

The Metropolis-Hastings algorithm is a prominent MCMC method for obtaining a sequence of random samples from a probability distribution for which direct sampling is difficult. At each iteration, it generates a candidate for the next sample based on the current sample. This candidate is then accepted or rejected with a certain probability, ensuring the resulting chain converges to the desired distribution.

The Seven Basic Tools of Quality are a set of graphical techniques identified by Kaoru Ishikawa for troubleshooting quality-related issues. These tools are: Cause-and-effect diagram (fishbone), Check sheet, Control chart, Histogram, Pareto chart, Scatter diagram, and Stratification (often presented as a flowchart). They are considered 'basic' because they are simple to use and require little formal statistical training.

The Waterfall Model is a sequential, non-iterative software development process, where progress flows steadily downwards (like a waterfall) through distinct phases: conception, initiation, analysis, design, construction, testing, deployment and maintenance. Each phase must be fully completed before moving to the next. It is often contrasted with iterative models to highlight their flexibility.

The recovery block scheme is a software fault-tolerance technique based on design diversity and backward error recovery. It structures a program as a series of blocks, each with a primary module, an acceptance test, and one or more alternate modules. If the primary module's output fails the acceptance test, the system state is restored, and an alternate module is executed.

Automated theorem proving (ATP) is a subfield of computer science and mathematical logic dedicated to proving mathematical theorems using computer programs. ATP systems, or provers, use logical reasoning to deduce new theorems from a set of axioms and hypotheses. They are distinct from proof assistants, which require more human guidance, though the fields overlap significantly.

Verification techniques are broadly classified as static or dynamic. Static verification (or static analysis) examines the system's code or design without executing it. Examples include code reviews, inspections, and automated static analysis tools. Dynamic verification (or testing) involves executing the system with a set of inputs and observing its behavior to find defects. Both are complementary for comprehensive quality assurance.

The Risk Priority Number (RPN) is a quantitative measure used in FMEA to prioritize risks. It is calculated as the product of three ranked factors: Severity (S), Occurrence (O), and Detection (D). The formula is \(RPN = S times O times D\). Each factor is typically rated on a scale from 1 to 10, allowing teams to focus on the highest-scoring risks first.

Real-time systems are classified as "hard" or "soft" based on the consequence of missing a deadline. In a hard real-time system, missing a deadline is a total system failure, such as in an anti-lock braking system. In a soft real-time system, missing a deadline leads to degraded performance but not catastrophic failure, such as in live audio-video streaming.

Rate-Monotonic Scheduling (RMS) is a static-priority scheduling algorithm for periodic tasks in a real-time system. It assigns priorities based on task frequency: the shorter a task's period (the higher its rate), the higher its priority. RMS is an optimal static-priority algorithm, meaning if any static-priority algorithm can schedule a task set, RMS can too. Schedulability can be checked using a utilization-based test.

The Finite Volume Method (FVM) is a dominant numerical technique in CFD for solving partial differential equations. It discretizes the domain into a mesh of control volumes and applies the governing equations in their integral form to each volume. By converting volume integrals to surface integrals using the divergence theorem, it focuses on calculating the flux of conserved properties across cell faces.