Ecuaciones de Navier-Stokes promediadas por Reynolds (RANS)

The Nernst equation relates the reduction potential of a half-cell (or the total voltage of an electrochemical cell) to the standard electrode potential, temperature, and the activities (often approximated by concentrations) of the chemical species undergoing redox. The equation is [latex]E = E^{\circ} - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln Q[/latex], where Q is the reaction quotient.

In electrochemical cells like batteries and fuel cells, EMF is generated by chemical reactions. The separation of charge is driven by oxidation and reduction reactions occurring at two different electrodes. The maximum EMF of a cell is related to the change in Gibbs free energy ([latex]\Delta G[/latex]) of the reaction by [latex]\mathcal{E} = -\frac{\Delta G}{nF}[/latex], where [latex]n[/latex] is moles of electrons and [latex]F[/latex] is the Faraday constant.

Chemiluminescence, or chemoluminescence,  is the emission of light (luminescence) as a result of a chemical reaction. An excited state intermediate, denoted as [Product]* (note the asterisk frequently used for that), is formed. This intermediate then decays to a lower energy ground state, releasing energy in the form of a photon. The overall process can be represented as [latex]A + B \rightarrow [Product]* \rightarrow Product + light[/latex].

The Curie temperature ([latex]T_c[/latex]), or Curie point, is the critical temperature above which certain materials lose their permanent magnetic properties. For ferromagnetic materials, they become paramagnetic above [latex]T_c[/latex]. This transition is a phase transition where thermal energy becomes strong enough to overcome the quantum mechanical exchange interactions that cause spontaneous magnetic ordering of atomic moments.

El efecto Zeeman consiste en la división de una línea espectral atómica en múltiples componentes cuando se aplica un campo magnético estático externo. Esta división se produce porque el campo magnético interactúa con el momento dipolar magnético asociado con el momento orbital y angular de espín del átomo, modificando los niveles de energía de sus electrones, un fenómeno crucial para el estudio de la estructura atómica.

In a system at thermodynamic equilibrium, the electrochemical potential, [latex]\bar{\mu}_i[/latex], for any given charged species `i` must be uniform throughout all phases. If a gradient exists ([latex]\nabla \bar{\mu}_i \neq 0[/latex]), ions will spontaneously move from regions of higher potential to lower potential, creating a current or flux, until this gradient is eliminated and equilibrium is re-established.

El motor de inducción de CA funciona según el principio de un campo magnético rotatorio generado por el estator. Este campo se crea al suministrar corrientes CA polifásicas a los devanados del estator distribuidos espacialmente. El campo rotatorio induce corrientes en los conductores del rotor (p. ej., una jaula de ardilla), que crean un campo magnético opuesto. La interacción entre estos campos produce el par rotatorio.

The Nernst equation quantifies the reversible electromotive force (EMF) or open-circuit voltage of a fuel cell under non-standard conditions. It links the cell potential ([latex]E[/latex]) to its standard potential ([latex]E^0[/latex]), temperature, and the activities (approximated by partial pressures) of reactants and products. The equation is [latex]E = E^0 - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln Q[/latex], where Q is the reaction quotient.

Motional EMF is generated when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The magnetic component of the Lorentz force, [latex]\mathbf{F} = q(\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})[/latex], acts on the charge carriers within the conductor, causing them to move and create a charge separation. This separation establishes an electric field and a potential difference. The resulting EMF is given by the line integral [latex]\mathcal{E} = \oint (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) \cdot d\mathbf{l}[/latex].

The distribution ratio (D) is a key equilibrium parameter in Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE), defined as the total analytical concentration of a solute in the organic phase divided by its total concentration in the aqueous phase. [latex]D = \frac{[S]_{org,total}}{[S]_{aq,total}}[/latex]. Unlike the partition coefficient (K_D), D accounts for all species of the solute, including dissociated or complexed forms, making it pH-dependent.

El ciclo Hampson-Linde licúa gases como el aire mediante el efecto Joule-Thomson combinado con refrigeración regenerativa. El gas a alta presión se enfría en un intercambiador de calor a contracorriente mediante el gas frío a baja presión que retorna de la válvula de expansión. Esto reduce progresivamente la temperatura en la válvula hasta que desciende por debajo del punto crítico y comienza la licuefacción, sentando las bases de la industria moderna de licuefacción de gases.

The Lorentz force law describes the total force experienced by a point charge moving through a combined electric and magnetic field. It is the sum of the electrostatic force and the magnetic force. The governing vector equation is [latex]\mathbf{F} = q(\mathbf{E} + \mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})[/latex], where [latex]q[/latex] is the charge, [latex]\mathbf{v}[/latex] is its velocity, [latex]\mathbf{E}[/latex] is the electric field, and [latex]\mathbf{B}[/latex] is the magnetic field.

Inventada por Waldemar Jungner en 1899, la batería de NiCd utiliza hidróxido de óxido de níquel (NiO(OH)) como electrodo positivo y cadmio metálico (Cd) como electrodo negativo, con un electrolito alcalino como el hidróxido de potasio (KOH). Es conocida por su larga vida útil y buen rendimiento a bajas temperaturas, pero sufre el efecto memoria y la toxicidad del cadmio.

The absolute electrochemical potential of a single electrode cannot be measured. Instead, potentials are measured relative to a universally accepted reference. The Standard Hydrogen Electrode (SHE) is the primary reference, assigned a potential of exactly 0 volts under standard conditions (1 M [latex]H^+[/latex] concentration, 1 bar [latex]H_2[/latex] gas, 298 K). All other standard electrode potentials are reported relative to this zero point.