المواصفات اللاغرانجية والأويلرية (السوائل)

Bernoulli's principle states that for an inviscid flow, an increase in a fluid's speed occurs simultaneously with a decrease in pressure or a decrease in its potential energy. It is a statement of the conservation of energy for a moving fluid, commonly expressed as [latex]p + \frac{1}{2}\rho v^2 + \rho gh = \text{constant}[/latex] along a streamline.

ميكانيكا الموائع هي فرع من فروع الميكانيكا التطبيقية، تُعنى بدراسة سكون السوائل (السوائل الساكنة) وحركتها (السوائل المتحركة). تُطبّق ميكانيكا الموائع مبادئ أساسية للكتلة والزخم وحفظ الطاقة لتحليل سلوك الموائع والتنبؤ به. وتتنوع تطبيقاتها، من الديناميكا الهوائية والهيدروليكا إلى الأرصاد الجوية وعلم المحيطات.

In continuum mechanics, the principle of mass conservation states that the mass of a closed system must remain constant over time. For a fluid, this is expressed by the continuity equation. In its Eulerian differential form, it is written as [latex]\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{u}) = 0[/latex], where [latex]\rho[/latex] is the density and [latex]\mathbf{u}[/latex] is the velocity field.

ميكانيكا المواد الصلبة فرع من ميكانيكا المتصلات، يدرس سلوك المواد الصلبة، وخاصةً حركتها وتشوهها تحت تأثير القوى، وتغيرات درجة الحرارة، أو الأحمال الخارجية الأخرى. وتُعدّ هذه الميكانيكا أساسيةً في الهندسة لتصميم وتحليل الهياكل. وتشمل مجالاتها الرئيسية المرونة (التشوه القابل للاستعادة)، واللدونة (التشوه الدائم)، وميكانيكا الكسر (بدء وانتشار الشقوق).

Electromotive force ([latex]\mathcal{E}[/latex]) is the work done per unit of electric charge by a non-electrical source, such as a battery or generator. Despite its name, it is not a mechanical force but an electric potential, measured in volts. It represents the energy converted from another form (chemical, mechanical) into electrical energy as a charge traverses the source.

The electric current in a Voltaic pile is produced by a redox reaction. At the zinc anode, zinc metal is oxidized, releasing two electrons per atom ([latex]Zn \rightarrow Zn^{2+} + 2e^{-}[/latex]). These electrons travel through the external circuit to the copper cathode. There, hydrogen ions from the aqueous electrolyte are reduced, forming hydrogen gas ([latex]2H^{+} + 2e^{-} \rightarrow H_2[/latex]).

In an isolated system, the total momentum remains constant. An isolated system is one not subject to external forces. This principle follows from Newton's laws of motion. For a system of particles, the total momentum [latex]\vec{p}_{\text{total}} = \sum_{i} m_i \vec{v}_i[/latex] is conserved if the net external force is zero. This is fundamental to analyzing collisions.

In a reference frame rotating with an angular velocity [latex]\boldsymbol{\omega}[/latex], the centrifugal force [latex]\mathbf{F}_{\mathrm{cf}}[/latex] acting on an object of mass [latex]m[/latex] at a position vector [latex]\mathbf{r}[/latex] from the origin is given by the vector formula: [latex]\mathbf{F}_{\mathrm{cf}} = -m \boldsymbol{\omega} \times (\boldsymbol{\omega} \times \mathbf{r})[/latex]. This formula shows the force is directed perpendicular to the axis of rotation and outwards.

Coulomb's Law quantifies the electrostatic force between two stationary, electrically charged particles. The force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The formula is [latex]F = k_e \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}[/latex]. This force can be either attractive or repulsive.

A reformulation of classical mechanics based on the principle of stationary action. It uses a scalar quantity called the Lagrangian, defined as kinetic energy minus potential energy ([latex]L = T - V[/latex]). The equations of motion are derived from the Euler-Lagrange equation, [latex]\frac{d}{dt} \left( \frac{\partial L}{\partial \dot{q}_i} \right) - \frac{\partial L}{\partial q_i} = 0[/latex], using generalized coordinates, which simplifies analysis of complex systems with constraints.

Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical process where one metal corrodes preferentially when in electrical contact with another in the presence of an electrolyte. This occurs because the dissimilar metals create a bimetallic couple, with the less noble (more active) metal acting as the anode and corroding, while the more noble metal acts as the cathode.

أول بطارية كهربائية، تُنتج تيارًا مستمرًا بتكديس أزواج من أقراص معدنية مختلفة (مثل الزنك والنحاس)، مفصولة بقطعة قماش مبللة بمحلول ملحي. يُشكل كل زوج خلية جلفانية، ويؤدي تكديسها على التوالي إلى زيادة الجهد الكلي. أظهر هذا الترتيب أول تحويل مستمر للطاقة الكيميائية إلى طاقة كهربائية، ممهدًا الطريق للكيمياء الكهربائية الحديثة.

The Voltaic pile established the principle of adding voltages by connecting electrochemical cells in series. Each zinc-copper pair, or cell, generates a characteristic electromotive force (EMF) of approximately 0.76 volts. By physically stacking these cells, Volta demonstrated that the total voltage across the pile is the sum of the individual EMFs of each cell, as described by [latex]V_{total} = n \times V_{cell}[/latex].