مبدأ الكومة الفولتية

Coulomb's Law quantifies the electrostatic force between two stationary, electrically charged particles. The force is directly proportional to the product of the magnitudes of the charges and inversely proportional to the square of the distance between them. The formula is [latex]F = k_e \frac{q_1 q_2}{r^2}[/latex]. This force can be either attractive or repulsive.

A reformulation of classical mechanics based on the principle of stationary action. It uses a scalar quantity called the Lagrangian, defined as kinetic energy minus potential energy ([latex]L = T - V[/latex]). The equations of motion are derived from the Euler-Lagrange equation, [latex]\frac{d}{dt} \left( \frac{\partial L}{\partial \dot{q}_i} \right) - \frac{\partial L}{\partial q_i} = 0[/latex], using generalized coordinates, which simplifies analysis of complex systems with constraints.

Galvanic corrosion is an electrochemical process where one metal corrodes preferentially when in electrical contact with another in the presence of an electrolyte. This occurs because the dissimilar metals create a bimetallic couple, with the less noble (more active) metal acting as the anode and corroding, while the more noble metal acts as the cathode.

The Voltaic pile established the principle of adding voltages by connecting electrochemical cells in series. Each zinc-copper pair, or cell, generates a characteristic electromotive force (EMF) of approximately 0.76 volts. By physically stacking these cells, Volta demonstrated that the total voltage across the pile is the sum of the individual EMFs of each cell, as described by [latex]V_{total} = n \times V_{cell}[/latex].

A Fresnel zone is one of a series of confocal prolate ellipsoidal regions in space between a transmitter and a receiver. The primary zone's boundary is the ellipsoid where the path length from transmitter to a point on the surface to the receiver is half a wavelength longer than the direct path, causing a 180-degree phase shift.

In continuum mechanics, the principle of mass conservation states that the mass of a closed system must remain constant over time. For a fluid, this is expressed by the continuity equation. In its Eulerian differential form, it is written as [latex]\frac{\partial \rho}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \mathbf{u}) = 0[/latex], where [latex]\rho[/latex] is the density and [latex]\mathbf{u}[/latex] is the velocity field.

هناك طريقتان لوصف الحركة في ميكانيكا الاستمرارية:

• تتبع مواصفات لاغرانج جزيئات المواد الفردية، وتتبع خصائصها بمرور الوقت، مثل مراقبة سيارة معينة في حركة المرور
• تركز المواصفات الأويلريّة على نقاط ثابتة في الفضاء، ومراقبة خصائص (السرعة، الكثافة) لأي جسيمات تمر عبر تلك النقاط، مثل كاميرا المرور التي تراقب تقاطعًا ثابتًا.

ميكانيكا المواد الصلبة فرع من ميكانيكا المتصلات، يدرس سلوك المواد الصلبة، وخاصةً حركتها وتشوهها تحت تأثير القوى، وتغيرات درجة الحرارة، أو الأحمال الخارجية الأخرى. وتُعدّ هذه الميكانيكا أساسيةً في الهندسة لتصميم وتحليل الهياكل. وتشمل مجالاتها الرئيسية المرونة (التشوه القابل للاستعادة)، واللدونة (التشوه الدائم)، وميكانيكا الكسر (بدء وانتشار الشقوق).

Electromotive force ([latex]\mathcal{E}[/latex]) is the work done per unit of electric charge by a non-electrical source, such as a battery or generator. Despite its name, it is not a mechanical force but an electric potential, measured in volts. It represents the energy converted from another form (chemical, mechanical) into electrical energy as a charge traverses the source.

The electric current in a Voltaic pile is produced by a redox reaction. At the zinc anode, zinc metal is oxidized, releasing two electrons per atom ([latex]Zn \rightarrow Zn^{2+} + 2e^{-}[/latex]). These electrons travel through the external circuit to the copper cathode. There, hydrogen ions from the aqueous electrolyte are reduced, forming hydrogen gas ([latex]2H^{+} + 2e^{-} \rightarrow H_2[/latex]).

Absolute humidity ([latex]d_v[/latex]) is the total mass of water vapor ([latex]m_{H_2O}[/latex]) present in a given volume of air ([latex]V_{air}[/latex]). It is expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter of air ([latex]g/m^3[/latex]). The formula is [latex]d_v = \frac{m_{H_2O}}{V_{air}}[/latex]. Unlike relative humidity, it is not dependent on the air's temperature, but it is affected by changes in air pressure or volume.

في عام ١٨٠١، لاحظ يوهان فيلهلم ريتر أن الأشعة غير المرئية الواقعة خلف الطرف البنفسجي من الطيف الشمسي تُغمق الورق المنقوع بكلوريد الفضة أسرع من الضوء البنفسجي نفسه. برهن هذا على وجود شكل من أشكال الضوء يتجاوز الطيف المرئي، أطلق عليه اسم "الأشعة المؤكسدة" للتباين مع "الأشعة الحرارية" (الأشعة تحت الحمراء) التي اكتُشفت في العام السابق.