能斯特方程

剪切增稠，或称膨胀性，是一种非牛顿行为，其粘度随剪切应力的增大而增大。一个典型的例子是玉米淀粉在水中的悬浮液（欧不裂），缓慢搅拌时感觉像液体，但快速敲击或搅拌时几乎变成固体。这种现象是由于悬浮颗粒在高剪切作用下相互堵塞造成的。

In electrochemical cells like batteries and fuel cells, EMF is generated by chemical reactions. The separation of charge is driven by oxidation and reduction reactions occurring at two different electrodes. The maximum EMF of a cell is related to the change in Gibbs free energy ([latex]\Delta G[/latex]) of the reaction by [latex]\mathcal{E} = -\frac{\Delta G}{nF}[/latex], where [latex]n[/latex] is moles of electrons and [latex]F[/latex] is the Faraday constant.

Chemiluminescence, or chemoluminescence,  is the emission of light (luminescence) as a result of a chemical reaction. An excited state intermediate, denoted as [Product]* (note the asterisk frequently used for that), is formed. This intermediate then decays to a lower energy ground state, releasing energy in the form of a photon. The overall process can be represented as [latex]A + B \rightarrow [Product]* \rightarrow Product + light[/latex].

雷诺平均纳维-斯托克斯 (RANS) 方程是湍流的时间平均运动方程。这种方法称为雷诺分解，将流动变量分解为平均分量和波动分量。平均过程引入了一个附加项，即雷诺应力张量，它表示湍流的影响，必须对其进行建模才能实现闭合，从而使模拟在计算上易于处理。

The Reynolds number ([latex]\text{Re}[/latex]) is a dimensionless quantity in fluid mechanics used to predict flow patterns by representing the ratio of inertial forces to viscous forces. Low Reynolds numbers characterize smooth, orderly laminar flow, while high Reynolds numbers indicate chaotic, eddy-filled turbulent flow. It is crucial for determining the dynamic behavior of a fluid and for scaling experiments.

Electromagnetic fields can carry momentum. The momentum density of the electromagnetic field is given by the Poynting vector [latex]\vec{S}[/latex] divided by the speed of light squared, [latex]\vec{g} = \vec{S}/c^2 = (\vec{E} \times \vec{B})/(\mu_0 c^2)[/latex]. For momentum to be conserved in a system of charged particles and fields, the momentum of the fields must be included alongside the mechanical momentum of the particles.

The Mach number (M) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound: [latex]M = v/a[/latex], where v is the flow velocity and a is the speed of sound. It is the primary indicator of compressibility effects. As Mach number approaches and exceeds 1, the density of the air changes significantly, altering aerodynamic forces.

交流感应电动机的工作原理是定子产生旋转磁场。该磁场是通过向空间分布的定子绕组提供多相交流电流产生的。旋转磁场在转子导体（例如鼠笼式）中感应出电流，从而产生反向磁场。这些磁场之间的相互作用产生了旋转扭矩。

The Nernst equation quantifies the reversible electromotive force (EMF) or open-circuit voltage of a fuel cell under non-standard conditions. It links the cell potential ([latex]E[/latex]) to its standard potential ([latex]E^0[/latex]), temperature, and the activities (approximated by partial pressures) of reactants and products. The equation is [latex]E = E^0 - \frac{RT}{nF} \ln Q[/latex], where Q is the reaction quotient.

Motional EMF is generated when a conductor moves through a magnetic field. The magnetic component of the Lorentz force, [latex]\mathbf{F} = q(\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B})[/latex], acts on the charge carriers within the conductor, causing them to move and create a charge separation. This separation establishes an electric field and a potential difference. The resulting EMF is given by the line integral [latex]\mathcal{E} = \oint (\mathbf{v} \times \mathbf{B}) \cdot d\mathbf{l}[/latex].

The distribution ratio (D) is a key equilibrium parameter in Liquid-Liquid Extraction (LLE), defined as the total analytical concentration of a solute in the organic phase divided by its total concentration in the aqueous phase. [latex]D = \frac{[S]_{org,total}}{[S]_{aq,total}}[/latex]. Unlike the partition coefficient (K_D), D accounts for all species of the solute, including dissociated or complexed forms, making it pH-dependent.

汉普森-林德循环利用焦耳-汤姆逊效应和再生冷却技术，将空气等气体液化。高压气体在逆流式热交换器中被从膨胀阀返回的低温低压气体冷却。这逐渐降低阀门处的温度，直至降至临界点以下，开始液化，这构成了现代气体液化工业的基础。