Redox in Cellular Respiration

A physical sterilization method that removes microorganisms from liquids and gases by passing them through a filter with a pore size small enough to retain the microbes. A common pore size for sterilizing filtration is 0.22 micrometers (µm), which effectively removes most bacteria. This technique does not kill microorganisms but physically separates them, making it ideal for heat-labile solutions.

Overpotential is the potential difference (voltage) between a half-reaction's thermodynamically determined reduction potential and the potential at which the redox event is experimentally observed. It represents the extra energy required to overcome activation barriers for the electrode reaction to proceed at a significant rate. It is a key factor in the energy efficiency of all electrolytic processes.

In 1921, Frederick Banting and Charles Best, under John Macleod's direction at the University of Toronto, isolated insulin from canine pancreatic extracts. Biochemist James Collip then developed a purification process, making the extract safe for human use. This discovery transformed type 1 diabetes from a fatal disease into a manageable condition, earning Banting and Macleod the 1923 Nobel Prize.

Electrochemical potential is fundamental to life, driving processes across cell membranes. Ion pumps actively create concentration gradients, while the selective permeability of ion channels establishes an electrical potential (membrane potential). The resulting electrochemical gradient dictates the passive flow of ions, which is crucial for nerve signaling (action potentials), muscle contraction, and cellular energy production (ATP synthesis) in mitochondria.

The Calvin cycle, or light-independent reactions, uses the ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stage to convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic sugar molecules. This process occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. The key enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes the first step: the fixation of \(CO_2\) into an organic molecule, initiating a cycle that produces carbohydrates.

Translation is the biological process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins. It follows transcription, where the DNA sequence is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. During translation, the ribosome reads the mRNA sequence in three-nucleotide units called codons, and with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA), assembles the corresponding amino acid chain.

A method using high-pressure saturated steam at high temperatures to sterilize equipment and supplies. A typical cycle is 121 °C (250 °F) at 100 kPa (15 psi) above atmospheric pressure for 15 minutes. This combination of heat and moisture effectively denatures proteins and enzymes, killing all microorganisms, including resilient bacterial spores.

A peptide bond is a covalent chemical bond formed between two amino acid molecules. It links the carboxyl group (\(-COOH\)) of one amino acid to the amino group (\(-NH_2\)) of another, releasing a molecule of water in a dehydration synthesis reaction. This amide-type bond is fundamental to forming polypeptide chains, the basis of protein primary structure.

The D-value is the time required at a specific temperature to kill 90% (or one log reduction) of a target microorganism population. It is a critical parameter in thermal sterilization, quantifying a microbe's resistance to heat. For example, if a population of \(10^6\) spores has a D-value of 2 minutes, it takes 2 minutes to reduce it to \(10^5\).

Protein denaturation is the process in which a protein loses its native three-dimensional structure. This disruption of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures is caused by external stressors such as heat, extreme pH, organic solvents, or radiation. While the primary sequence of amino acids remains intact, the loss of shape results in the loss of the protein's biological function.

A low-temperature chemical sterilization method using ethylene oxide gas. It is effective for sterilizing heat-sensitive and moisture-sensitive materials like plastics, electronic devices, and optical instruments. The process involves alkylation, where EtO disrupts the DNA and proteins of microorganisms, preventing their replication. It requires careful control of gas concentration, temperature, humidity, and exposure time.

Cytotoxicity is the quality of a substance or cell being toxic to other cells. Cytotoxic agents can induce cell death through necrosis, where the cell membrane loses integrity leading to lysis and inflammation, or apoptosis, a controlled, programmed cell death process. This is distinct from cytostatic agents, which only inhibit cell division without directly causing cell death.

The alpha-helix (\(\alpha\)-helix) is a common secondary structure motif in proteins. It is a right-handed coiled conformation in which every backbone N-H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located four residues earlier (\(i+4 \rightarrow i\) hydrogen bonding). This regular pattern pulls the polypeptide chain into a helical shape.

Insulin is synthesized in pancreatic beta cells as a single-chain precursor called proinsulin. In the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin folds and forms its disulfide bonds. It is then transported to the Golgi apparatus and packaged into secretory granules, where proteases (prohormone convertases PC1/3 and PC2, and carboxypeptidase E) cleave it into mature insulin and a connecting peptide, C-peptide.