Alloys are classified based on atomic arrangement. In substitutional alloys, atoms of the solute element replace atoms of the solvent in the crystal lattice, common when atomic sizes are similar. In interstitial alloys, smaller solute atoms, like carbon in iron, fit into the spaces (interstices) between the larger solvent atoms. This structural difference fundamentally dictates the alloy’s mechanical properties.
The distinction between substitutional and interstitial solid solutions is fundamental to physical metallurgy and alloy design. The type of solid solution that forms is primarily governed by the relative sizes of the solute and solvent atoms. Substitutional alloys typically form when the atomic radii of the two elements are within about 15% of each other, a guideline known as the Hume-Rothery size-factor rule. When a solute atom replaces a solvent atom, it introduces localized lattice strain, which impedes dislocation motion and thus increases the material’s strength and hardness, but often reduces its 延展性. Examples include brass (zinc in copper) and bronze (tin in copper).
另一方面，间隙合金的形成是由于溶质原子明显小于溶剂原子，使得它们能够占据晶格内的间隙位置，而不会取代溶剂原子。常见的间隙原子有氢、硼、碳和氮。这些原子的存在会导致晶格发生显著畸变，从而提供一种非常有效的机制来阻止位错运动，从而大幅提高硬度和强度。最突出的例子是钢，其中碳原子占据了铁晶格中的间隙位置。碳的含量及其位置可以通过热处理来控制，决定了钢的最终性能，从延展性好的低碳钢到硬而脆的高碳钢。
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