The Photovoltaic Effect

A primary source of electromotive force is electromagnetic induction, described by Faraday's law. It states that a time-varying magnetic flux \(\Phi_B\) through a circuit loop induces an EMF (\(\mathcal{E}\)). The magnitude of the EMF is proportional to the rate of change of the flux, given by the equation \(\mathcal{E} = - \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}\). This principle is the foundation for electric generators, transformers, and inductors.

A reformulation of classical mechanics that uses generalized coordinates and their conjugate momenta. It is based on the Hamiltonian function, \(H(q, p, t)\), representing the system's total energy. The dynamics are described by Hamilton's equations: \(\dot{q}_i = \frac{\partial H}{\partial p_i}\) and \(\dot{p}_i = -\frac{\partial H}{\partial q_i}\). This framework is central to quantum mechanics and statistical mechanics.

A fundamental principle stating that the total energy of an isolated system remains constant over time. Energy can neither be created nor destroyed, only transformed from one form to another, such as from potential to kinetic energy. In classical mechanics, for systems with only conservative forces, the total mechanical energy \(E = T + V\) is conserved.

For a Newtonian fluid, viscosity is a function of temperature and pressure but not shear rate. In liquids, viscosity decreases significantly as temperature increases because higher thermal energy allows molecules to overcome cohesive intermolecular forces more easily. Conversely, in gases, viscosity increases with temperature as more frequent molecular collisions at higher speeds lead to greater momentum transfer.

This law states that the electromotive force (EMF, \(\mathcal{E}\)) induced in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux (\(\Phi_B\)) through the circuit. The mathematical expression is \(\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}\). This principle is the basis for electric generators, transformers, and inductors, describing the macroscopic effect of induction.

Lenz's law provides the direction of the induced electromotive force (EMF) and current resulting from electromagnetic induction. It states that the induced current will flow in a direction that creates a magnetic field opposing the change in magnetic flux that produced it. This principle is a consequence of the conservation of energy and is represented by the negative sign in Faraday's law.

An improvement on the Voltaic pile, the Daniell cell consists of a copper electrode in a copper(II) sulfate solution and a zinc electrode in a zinc sulfate solution, separated by a porous barrier. This two-fluid design prevents hydrogen gas buildup (polarization) on the copper electrode, resulting in a much more stable and reliable voltage source for a longer duration.

Viscoelasticity is the property of materials that exhibit both viscous and elastic characteristics when undergoing deformation. Viscous materials, like honey, resist shear flow and strain linearly with time when a stress is applied. Elastic materials, like a rubber band, strain when stretched and quickly return to their original state once the stress is removed. Viscoelastic materials have elements of both.

The enthalpy of sublimation, \(\Delta H_{\text{sub}}\), is the heat required to convert one mole of a substance from solid to gas at a given temperature and pressure. According to Hess's Law, since enthalpy is a state function, this energy change is the sum of the enthalpy of fusion (\(\Delta H_{\text{fus}}\)) and the enthalpy of vaporization (\(\Delta H_{\text{vap}}\)).