Topological Space

The Reynolds-Averaged Navier-Stokes (RANS) equations are time-averaged equations of motion for turbulent fluid flow. This approach, called Reynolds decomposition, separates flow variables into a mean and a fluctuating component. The averaging process introduces an additional term, the Reynolds stress tensor, which represents the effect of turbulence and must be modeled to achieve closure, making simulations computationally tractable.

A statistical ensemble is a conceptual tool consisting of a large number of virtual copies of a system, each representing a possible microstate. By averaging properties over all systems in the ensemble, one can calculate macroscopic observables. The main types are the microcanonical (isolated system with fixed N, V, E), canonical (closed system, fixed N, V, T), and grand canonical (open system, fixed µ, V, T).

The equivalence principle is a cornerstone of general relativity. It posits that the effects of a uniform gravitational field are indistinguishable from the effects of uniform acceleration. This means that an observer in a windowless, free-falling elevator experiences weightlessness, just like an observer in deep space, far from any gravitational source, forming the conceptual basis for gravity as a geometric phenomenon.

A topological space is an ordered pair [latex](X, \tau)[/latex], where [latex]X[/latex] is a set and [latex]\tau[/latex] is a collection of subsets of [latex]X[/latex], called open sets, satisfying three axioms: 1) The empty set [latex]\emptyset[/latex] and [latex]X[/latex] itself are in [latex]\tau[/latex]. 2) The union of any number of sets in [latex]\tau[/latex] is also in [latex]\tau[/latex]. 3) The intersection of any finite number of sets in [latex]\tau[/latex] is also in [latex]\tau[/latex].

General relativity provided the first accurate explanation for the anomalous precession of Mercury's perihelion. Newtonian gravity could not fully account for the slow, gradual shift in the orientation of Mercury's elliptical orbit. Einstein's theory correctly predicted the missing 43 arcseconds per century, attributing it to the curvature of spacetime around the Sun, a major early triumph for the theory.

A black hole is a region of spacetime where gravity is so strong that nothing—no particles or even light—can escape. The boundary of this region is called the event horizon. Predicted by general relativity as a solution to the field equations, a black hole is the result of the complete gravitational collapse of a massive star.

General relativity predicts that the path of light is bent by gravity. When light from a distant source passes a massive object like a galaxy or a star, its path is deflected. This phenomenon, known as gravitational lensing, can magnify, distort, or create multiple images of the background source, acting like a cosmic telescope for observing the distant universe.

The Mach number (M) is a dimensionless quantity representing the ratio of flow velocity past a boundary to the local speed of sound: [latex]M = v/a[/latex], where v is the flow velocity and a is the speed of sound. It is the primary indicator of compressibility effects. As Mach number approaches and exceeds 1, the density of the air changes significantly, altering aerodynamic forces.

The Kutta-Joukowski theorem quantifies the lift force generated by an airfoil. It states that the lift per unit span ([latex]L'[/latex]) is directly proportional to the fluid density ([latex]\rho[/latex]), the free-stream velocity ([latex]V[/latex]), and the circulation ([latex]\Gamma[/latex]) around the body: [latex]L' = \rho V \Gamma[/latex]. This links the abstract concept of circulation to the physical force of lift.

The boundary layer is the thin layer of fluid in the immediate vicinity of a bounding surface where the effects of viscosity are significant. Introduced by Ludwig Prandtl, this concept simplifies fluid dynamics problems by dividing the flow into two regions: the thin boundary layer where viscosity dominates and the outer region where inviscid flow theory can be applied.

The von Mises yield criterion predicts that yielding of a ductile material begins when the second deviatoric stress invariant, [latex]J_2[/latex], reaches a critical value. It is often expressed in terms of the von Mises stress, [latex]\sigma_v[/latex], a scalar value that must be less than the material's yield strength, [latex]\sigma_y[/latex]. Yielding occurs when [latex]\sigma_v = \sigma_y[/latex].

A key prediction of general relativity is that time passes at different rates in different gravitational potentials. A clock in a stronger gravitational field (closer to a massive object) will tick slower than a clock in a weaker field. This effect, known as gravitational time dilation, has been experimentally verified and is a crucial factor in modern technology like GPS.

The Einstein Field Equations (EFE) are a set of ten coupled, non-linear partial differential equations that form the core of general relativity. They describe the fundamental interaction of gravitation as a result of spacetime being curved by matter and energy. The equation is concisely written as [latex]G_{\mu\nu} + \Lambda g_{\mu\nu} = \frac{8\pi G}{c^4} T_{\mu\nu}[/latex], relating spacetime geometry to its energy-momentum content.

General relativity predicts that a massive, rotating object should 'drag' the fabric of spacetime around with it, a phenomenon known as frame-dragging or the Lense-Thirring effect. This means a gyroscope orbiting the rotating body will precess, not because of any applied torque, but because spacetime itself is being twisted by the body's rotation.

A Bingham plastic is a viscoplastic material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stress. It is characterized by a yield stress, [latex]\tau_0[/latex], which is the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow. Below this threshold, it does not deform. Common examples include toothpaste, mayonnaise, and clay slurries.