纳维-斯托克斯方程

再生器，或称“节能器”，是罗伯特·斯特林最重要的贡献，也是发动机高效率的关键。它是一个内部热交换器，在循环过程中暂时储存和释放热能。当热气体流向冷端时，它会在再生器内部沉积热量，然后冷气体在返回热端的过程中吸收这些热量。

Engineering stress ([latex]\sigma[/latex]) is the applied load divided by the original cross-sectional area ([latex]A_0[/latex]), while engineering strain ([latex]\epsilon[/latex]) is the change in length ([latex]\Delta L[/latex]) divided by the original length ([latex]L_0[/latex]). These definitions, [latex]\sigma = \frac{F}{A_0}[/latex] and [latex]\epsilon = \frac{\Delta L}{L_0}[/latex], are fundamental for plotting stress-strain curves but assume the specimen's dimensions remain constant during the test.

电磁铁是一种由电流产生磁场的磁铁。电流切断后，磁场消失。电磁铁通常由一根绕成线圈的导线组成。磁场强度与电流和线圈匝数成正比。这一原理由汉斯·克里斯蒂安·奥斯特发现。

阴极保护 (CP) 是一种通过将金属表面作为电化学电池的阴极来控制其腐蚀的技术。其原理是通过施加外部电流来抑制金属的自然腐蚀电流。受保护金属的电位被极化至更低的负值，使其进入免疫区或钝化区。

For continuous systems like fluids or solids, momentum conservation is expressed in a differential form. The rate of change of momentum density [latex]\rho \vec{v}[/latex] at a point is governed by the divergence of the Cauchy stress tensor [latex]\sigma[/latex] and body forces [latex]\vec{f}[/latex]. This is described by the Cauchy momentum equation: [latex]\frac{\partial (\rho \vec{v})}{\partial t} + \nabla \cdot (\rho \vec{v} \otimes \vec{v}) = \nabla \cdot \sigma + \vec{f}[/latex].

A primary source of electromotive force is electromagnetic induction, described by Faraday's law. It states that a time-varying magnetic flux [latex]\Phi_B[/latex] through a circuit loop induces an EMF ([latex]\mathcal{E}[/latex]). The magnitude of the EMF is proportional to the rate of change of the flux, given by the equation [latex]\mathcal{E} = - \frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}[/latex]. This principle is the foundation for electric generators, transformers, and inductors.

The ideal Stirling cycle is a closed regenerative thermodynamic cycle comprising four distinct processes: isothermal expansion, isochoric heat removal, isothermal compression, and isochoric heat addition. The working fluid is permanently contained. Its theoretical thermal efficiency equals the Carnot cycle efficiency, given by [latex]\eta_{th} = 1 - \frac{T_C}{T_H}[/latex], where [latex]T_H[/latex] and [latex]T_C[/latex] are the absolute temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.

连续介质假设将流体视为连续物质，而非离散分子。当问题的长度尺度远大于分子间距离时，这种简化是有效的，从而允许在无穷小的点上定义密度和速度等属性。这使得我们能够使用微分方程来描述流体流动的宏观行为。

A magnet's magnetic moment is a vector quantity that characterizes its overall magnetic properties. It can be visualized as a magnetic dipole, a hypothetical pair of north and south poles separated by a distance. The moment points from the south to the north pole. For a current loop, the magnetic moment [latex]\vec{\mu} = I \vec{A}[/latex], where I is the current and A is the area vector.

The Cauchy stress tensor, denoted [latex]\boldsymbol{\sigma}[/latex], is a second-order tensor that completely defines the state of stress at a point inside a material. It relates the traction vector (force per unit area) [latex]\mathbf{T}[/latex] on any surface passing through that point to the surface's normal vector [latex]\mathbf{n}[/latex] via the linear relationship [latex]\mathbf{T} = \boldsymbol{\sigma} \cdot \mathbf{n}[/latex].

The work-energy theorem states that the net work ([latex]W[/latex]) done by all forces acting on a particle equals the change in its kinetic energy ([latex]\Delta E_k[/latex]). Mathematically, [latex]W = \Delta E_k = E_{k,f} - E_{k,i}[/latex]. This principle directly links the concepts of force, displacement, and energy, providing a powerful tool for analyzing motion without directly using Newton's second law.

This law states that the electromotive force (EMF, [latex]\mathcal{E}[/latex]) induced in any closed circuit is equal to the negative of the time rate of change of the magnetic flux ([latex]\Phi_B[/latex]) through the circuit. The mathematical expression is [latex]\mathcal{E} = -\frac{d\Phi_B}{dt}[/latex]. This principle is the basis for electric generators, transformers, and inductors, describing the macroscopic effect of induction.