Exothermic Welding

Ductility is a measure of a material's ability to undergo significant plastic deformation before rupture, often quantified by percent elongation or percent reduction in area. Ductile materials, like steel, show a long plastic region on their stress-strain curve. Brittleness is the opposite; brittle materials, like ceramics or cast iron, fracture with little to no plastic deformation.

Hydrogen embrittlement (HE) is a process where metals, most notably high-strength steels, become brittle and fracture following exposure to hydrogen. Atomic hydrogen diffuses into the metal lattice and reduces its ductility and load-bearing capacity. Key proposed mechanisms include Hydrogen-Enhanced Decohesion (HEDE), which weakens atomic bonds, and Hydrogen-Enhanced Localized Plasticity (HELP), which facilitates dislocation motion and localized failure.

Le procédé chloralcalin est une méthode industrielle d'électrolyse d'une solution de chlorure de sodium (NaCl), appelée saumure. Il constitue la principale source de production de chlore (Cl₂), d'hydroxyde de sodium (NaOH) et d'hydrogène (H₂), des produits chimiques de base essentiels. Les méthodes modernes utilisent une cellule à membrane pour séparer les produits anodiques et cathodiques, garantissant ainsi une pureté et une efficacité élevées.

Oxy-fuel cutting, or flame cutting, severs ferrous metals by a rapid, exothermic oxidation process. First, a preheating flame raises the steel's surface to its kindling temperature (approx. 870 °C or 1600 °F). A high-pressure jet of pure oxygen is then directed at the spot, initiating a chemical reaction, [latex]3Fe + 2O_2 \rightarrow Fe_3O_4[/latex], which forms molten iron oxide (slag) and releases heat.

Gas cylinders for oxy-fuel welding store gases or other industrial or medical gases, at very high pressures. A pressure regulator is essential to reduce this to a safe, usable working pressure. A two-stage regulator performs this reduction in two steps, providing a highly constant delivery pressure even as the cylinder pressure drops with use. This ensures a stable flow, thus a stable flame for consistent weld quality.

Acoustic impedance ([latex]Z[/latex]) is a material's intrinsic resistance to acoustic flow, defined as its density ([latex]\rho[/latex]) multiplied by its acoustic velocity ([latex]c[/latex]), so [latex]Z = \rho c[/latex]. The percentage of ultrasonic energy reflected at the boundary between two materials is governed by the difference, or mismatch, in their respective acoustic impedances. This principle is what makes flaw detection possible.

A hydrostatic test is a specific type of proof test for pressure vessels like pipes, boilers, and gas cylinders. The vessel is filled with a nearly incompressible liquid, typically water, and pressurized to a specified test pressure. This method is preferred over pneumatic testing because it requires less energy release to achieve the same pressure, making it very significantly safer if a rupture occurs.

Yield strength, or the yield point, is the stress at which a material begins to deform plastically. Prior to the yield point, the material deforms elastically and will return to its original shape when the applied stress is removed. Once the yield point is passed, some fraction of the deformation will be permanent and non-reversible. It marks the limit of elastic behavior.

Le procédé Hall-Héroult est la principale méthode industrielle de fusion de l'aluminium. Il consiste à dissoudre de l'alumine (oxyde d'aluminium, Al₂O₃) dans de la cryolite fondue (Na₃AlF₆) et à électrolyser le bain de sels fondus. L'aluminium métallique se dépose à la cathode, tandis que l'oxygène de l'alumine réagit avec le carbone de l'anode, produisant du dioxyde de carbone. Ce procédé a permis à l'aluminium d'être largement disponible et abordable.

Formule empirique qui décrit comment la capacité disponible d'une batterie diminue à mesure que le taux de décharge augmente. La loi s'énonce comme suit : [latex]C_p = I^k t[/latex], où [latex]C_p[/latex] est la capacité à un taux de décharge d'un ampère, [latex]I[/latex] est le courant de décharge, [latex]t[/latex] est le temps de décharge, et [latex]k[/latex] est la constante de Peukert, spécifique au type de batterie. Elle quantifie l'inefficacité à des charges élevées.

Oxy-acetylene welding uses a flame produced by the combustion of acetylene ([latex]C_2H_2[/latex]) with pure oxygen. The reaction occurs in two stages. The primary reaction in the inner, white-hot cone is incomplete, producing carbon monoxide and hydrogen: [latex]2C_2H_2 + 2O_2 \rightarrow 4CO + 2H_2[/latex]. These hot gases then react with atmospheric oxygen in the outer envelope, completing the combustion.

The properties of an oxy-acetylene flame are controlled by the volumetric ratio of oxygen to acetylene. A neutral flame (ratio ≈ 1.1:1) is standard for steel welding. A carburizing or reducing flame (ratio 1.1:1) has excess oxygen, is hotter, and is used for braze-welding.

Temper embrittlement is a reduction in the toughness of certain alloy steels caused by holding them in, or slowly cooling them through, a specific temperature range (approximately 375–575 °C). This phenomenon is driven by the segregation of impurity elements (e.g., phosphorus, tin, antimony) to the grain boundaries, which weakens the cohesion between grains and promotes intergranular fracture.

For materials that do not have a distinct yield point on their stress-strain curve, like aluminum or high-strength steel, 'proof stress' is the engineering equivalent. It is defined as the stress required to produce a small, specified amount of permanent (plastic) deformation, typically 0.2% of the original gauge length. This value, [latex]\sigma_{0.2}[/latex], is used in design calculations as the material's practical elastic limit.