Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) Spectroscopy

The principle of NMR is based on the quantum mechanical property of nuclear spin. Nuclei with a non-zero spin, such as ¹H (protons) and ¹³C, behave like tiny magnets. When placed in an external magnetic field ([latex]B_0[/latex]), these nuclear spins align either with or against the field, creating two distinct energy states. The energy difference between these states is proportional to the strength of [latex]B_0[/latex]. By applying a radiofrequency (RF) pulse at the precise frequency (the Larmor frequency) that matches this energy gap, the nuclei can be excited from the lower to the higher energy state. This absorption of energy is the “resonance” phenomenon. When the RF pulse is turned off, the nuclei relax back to their lower energy state, emitting a signal that is detected by the NMR spectrometer. Crucially, the exact resonance frequency of a nucleus is slightly altered by the local electronic environment, an effect called the “chemical shift”. This allows chemists to distinguish between, for example, protons in a methyl group (-CH₃) versus protons in a hydroxyl group (-OH) within the same molecule. Further complexities, like spin-spin coupling, provide information about which atoms are connected to each other, enabling the complete elucidation of molecular structures.