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Discovered in 1933 by Walther Meissner and Robert Ochsenfeld, the Meissner effect is the expulsion of a magnetic field from a superconductor during its transition to the superconducting state. When a material is cooled below its critical temperature ([latex]T_c[/latex]) in the presence of a weak external magnetic field, it actively cancels all magnetic flux inside it, becoming a perfect diamagnet.
The Meissner effect is a defining characteristic of superconductivity, distinguishing it from a hypothetical perfect conductor. A perfect conductor, according to Lenz’s law, would trap any existing magnetic field inside it as it cools, because changing the flux would induce currents to oppose the change. In contrast, a superconductor actively expels the field. This expulsion is achieved by the generation of screening currents on the surface of the material. These currents create a magnetic field that perfectly cancels the external field within the bulk of the superconductor. The magnetic field penetrates only a small distance into the surface, known as the London penetration depth ([latex]\lambda[/latex]). This discovery was crucial because it showed that superconductivity is a true thermodynamic phase transition, not just a case of infinite conductivity. It provided a key piece of the puzzle that any microscopic theory of superconductivity would have to explain. The effect is the basis for the dramatic levitation demonstrations where a magnet floats above a high-temperature superconductor cooled with liquid nitrogen. The expulsion of the magnet’s field by the superconductor creates a repulsive force strong enough to counteract gravity.
The Meissner effect breaks down when the applied magnetic field is too strong. For Type I superconductors, superconductivity is abruptly destroyed above a critical field [latex]H_c[/latex]. For Type II superconductors, the field begins to penetrate the material in the form of quantized flux vortices above a lower critical field [latex]H_{c1}[/latex], while the material remains superconducting until a much higher upper critical field [latex]H_{c2}[/latex].
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