生物膜中的电化学电位

过电位是指半反应热力学确定的还原电位与实验观察到的氧化还原电位之间的电位差（电压）。它代表克服活化能垒使电极反应以显著速率进行所需的额外能量。它是所有电解过程能量效率的关键因素。

In 1921, Frederick Banting and Charles Best, under John Macleod's direction at the University of Toronto, isolated insulin from canine pancreatic extracts. Biochemist James Collip then developed a purification process, making the extract safe for human use. This discovery transformed type 1 diabetes from a fatal disease into a manageable condition, earning Banting and Macleod the 1923 Nobel Prize.

细胞呼吸是一系列氧化还原反应，其中有机分子（如葡萄糖）被氧化以释放能量。葡萄糖（[latex]C_6H_{12}O_6[/latex]）被氧化成 [latex]CO_2[/latex]，而氧气（[latex]O_2[/latex]）被还原成水（[latex]H_2O[/latex]）。这一过程通过电子传递链传递电子，形成质子梯度，推动细胞主要能量货币 ATP 的合成。

The Calvin cycle, or light-independent reactions, uses the ATP and NADPH produced during the light-dependent stage to convert inorganic carbon dioxide into organic sugar molecules. This process occurs in the stroma of the chloroplast. The key enzyme, RuBisCO, catalyzes the first step: the fixation of [latex]CO_2[/latex] into an organic molecule, initiating a cycle that produces carbohydrates.

Translation is the biological process in which ribosomes in the cytoplasm or endoplasmic reticulum synthesize proteins. It follows transcription, where the DNA sequence is copied into a messenger RNA (mRNA) molecule. During translation, the ribosome reads the mRNA sequence in three-nucleotide units called codons, and with the help of transfer RNA (tRNA), assembles the corresponding amino acid chain.

SAL 是一种量化指标，代表灭菌后单个存活微生物在物品上存活的概率。医疗器械通常要求的 SAL 为 [latex]10^{-6}[/latex]，即百万分之一的几率出现非无菌装置。这种概率方法承认绝对无菌是无法证明的，只能通过工艺验证进行统计推断。

A peptide bond is a covalent chemical bond formed between two amino acid molecules. It links the carboxyl group ([latex]-COOH[/latex]) of one amino acid to the amino group ([latex]-NH_2[/latex]) of another, releasing a molecule of water in a dehydration synthesis reaction. This amide-type bond is fundamental to forming polypeptide chains, the basis of protein primary structure.

D 值是在特定温度下杀死 90%（或减少一个对数值）目标微生物群所需的时间。它是热杀菌中的一个关键参数，可量化微生物对热的抵抗力。例如，如果 [latex]10^6[/latex] 孢子数量的 D 值为 2 分钟，则需要 2 分钟才能将其减少到 [latex]10^5[/latex]。

Protein denaturation is the process in which a protein loses its native three-dimensional structure. This disruption of secondary, tertiary, and quaternary structures is caused by external stressors such as heat, extreme pH, organic solvents, or radiation. While the primary sequence of amino acids remains intact, the loss of shape results in the loss of the protein's biological function.

一种使用环氧乙烷气体的低温化学灭菌方法。该方法可有效灭菌塑料、电子设备和光学仪器等热敏性和湿敏性材料。该过程涉及烷基化，其中环氧乙烷会破坏微生物的DNA和蛋白质，从而阻止其复制。该方法需要严格控制气体浓度、温度、湿度和暴露时间。

细胞毒性是指物质或细胞对其他细胞具有毒性的特性。细胞毒性药物可通过坏死（细胞膜失去完整性，导致细胞溶解和炎症）或凋亡（一种受控的程序性细胞死亡过程）诱导细胞死亡。这与细胞抑制剂不同，细胞抑制剂仅抑制细胞分裂，而不会直接导致细胞死亡。

The alpha-helix ([latex]\alpha[/latex]-helix) is a common secondary structure motif in proteins. It is a right-handed coiled conformation in which every backbone N-H group donates a hydrogen bond to the backbone C=O group of the amino acid located four residues earlier ([latex]i+4 \rightarrow i[/latex] hydrogen bonding). This regular pattern pulls the polypeptide chain into a helical shape.

Insulin is synthesized in pancreatic beta cells as a single-chain precursor called proinsulin. In the endoplasmic reticulum, proinsulin folds and forms its disulfide bonds. It is then transported to the Golgi apparatus and packaged into secretory granules, where proteases (prohormone convertases PC1/3 and PC2, and carboxypeptidase E) cleave it into mature insulin and a connecting peptide, C-peptide.

Recombinant DNA (rDNA) technology involves joining together DNA molecules from two different species. The recombinant DNA is inserted into a host organism to produce new genetic combinations. This is achieved using restriction enzymes to cut DNA at specific sites and DNA ligase to join the fragments, often incorporating the desired gene into a plasmid vector for cloning.