自催化

广义相对论预测，一个旋转的大质量物体会“拖拽”时空结构，这种现象被称为参考系拖拽效应或伦斯-瑟林效应。这意味着绕旋转物体旋转的陀螺仪会发生进动，这并非由于施加的扭矩，而是因为物体的旋转扭曲了时空本身。

广义相对论预测光的路径会因引力而弯曲。当来自遥远光源的光经过星系或恒星等巨大物体时，其路径会发生偏转。这种现象被称为引力透镜，它可以放大、扭曲背景光源，或创建其多重图像，就像一台宇宙望远镜，用于观察遥远的宇宙。

复杂的氧化还原反应可以用半反应法配平。整个反应被拆分成两个独立的半反应：一个氧化反应，一个还原反应。每个半反应的原子和电荷都独立配平，通常是通过在水溶液中添加H+、OH-和H2O来实现的。最后，平衡电子数，并将两个半反应合并。

The Landé g-factor ([latex]g_J[/latex]) is a dimensionless proportionality constant that relates an atom's total magnetic moment to its total angular momentum in the weak-field limit. It is crucial for quantitatively explaining the anomalous Zeeman effect. Its value is given by the formula: [latex]g_J = 1 + \frac{J(J+1) + S(S+1) - L(L+1)}{2J(J+1)}[/latex], where L, S, and J are the quantum numbers.

All quantum entities, such as photons and electrons, exhibit both particle and wave properties. Depending on the experimental setup, they can behave like a localized particle or a distributed wave. The de Broglie hypothesis states that any particle with momentum [latex]p[/latex] has an associated wavelength [latex]\lambda = h/p[/latex], where [latex]h[/latex] is Planck's constant.

pH is formally defined as the negative decimal logarithm of the hydrogen ion activity, [latex]a_{H^+}[/latex]. The formula is [latex]pH = -\log_{10}(a_{H^+})[/latex]. Activity is the effective concentration of hydrogen ions, accounting for intermolecular forces, and is dimensionless. For dilute solutions, activity is approximately equal to the molar concentration of [latex]H^+[/latex] ions, simplifying the calculation.

The Henderson-Hasselbalch equation relates the pH of a solution of a weak acid to its acid dissociation constant ([latex]pK_a[/latex]) and the ratio of the concentrations of the deprotonated species (conjugate base, [latex][A^-][/latex]) to the protonated species (acid, [latex][HA][/latex]). The equation is [latex]pH = pK_a + \log_{10}\left(\frac{[A^-]}{[HA]}}\right)[/latex]. It is fundamental for understanding and preparing buffer solutions.

动量守恒是空间均匀性的直接结果，这意味着物理定律在空间平移下保持不变。诺特定理将这种深刻的联系形式化：对于物理系统的每一个连续对称性，都存在一个对应的守恒量。平移对称性意味着系统的拉格朗日量不会因坐标的平移而改变。

氧化还原（还原-氧化）反应涉及化学物质之间的电子转移。一种物质发生氧化（失去电子），而另一种物质发生还原（获得电子）。这两个过程总是同时发生。失去电子的物质是还原剂，获得电子的物质是氧化剂。这一基本概念是电化学和许多生物过程的基础。

A Bingham plastic is a viscoplastic material that behaves as a rigid body at low stresses but flows as a viscous fluid at high stress. It is characterized by a yield stress, [latex]\tau_0[/latex], which is the minimum shear stress required to initiate flow. Below this threshold, it does not deform. Common examples include toothpaste, mayonnaise, and clay slurries.

剪切稀化，或称假塑性，是一种非牛顿行为，指流体的粘度随剪切应力的增加而降低。许多常见物质，例如番茄酱或油漆，都表现出这种特性。静止状态下，它们很稠，但在摇晃、搅拌或摊开时更容易流动。这通常用奥斯特瓦尔德-德瓦勒幂律关系来描述。