应变分析中的莫尔圆

升华是一种用于纯化化合物（尤其是挥发性固体）的实验室技术。将不纯的固体缓慢加热（通常在减压条件下），使其直接升华为气体。然后，该气体以纯固体的形式沉积在冷却的表面上（称为冷指），而非挥发性杂质则留在原始容器中。

色温是可见光的一种特性，用于测量其色调，范围从暖色（淡黄色）到冷色（淡蓝色）。色温定义为理想黑体辐射体（其辐射光的色调与光源的色调相似）的温度。其测量单位为开尔文 (K)。

The Galilean cannon demonstrates velocity multiplication through sequential, one-dimensional elastic collisions. When a stack of balls with decreasing mass is dropped, the bottom ball rebounds and collides with the one above. In an idealized case where a large mass [latex]m_1[/latex] rebounds at velocity [latex]v[/latex] and hits a much smaller mass [latex]m_2[/latex] moving down at [latex]v[/latex], the smaller mass is propelled upwards at nearly [latex]3v[/latex].

The thermal efficiency ([latex]\eta_{th}[/latex]) of an ideal Otto cycle is a function of the compression ratio ([latex]r[/latex]) and the specific heat ratio ([latex]\gamma[/latex]) of the working fluid. The formula is [latex]\eta_{th} = 1 - \frac{1}{r^{\gamma-1}}[/latex]. This equation shows that efficiency increases with the compression ratio, providing a fundamental principle for engine design and performance optimization.

投影式光刻系统可打印的最小特征尺寸受衍射限制，并可用瑞利判据近似确定。临界尺寸 (CD) 由公式 [latex]CD = k_1 cdot frac{lambda}{NA}[/latex] 给出，其中 [latex]lambda[/latex] 为光波长，NA 为透镜数值孔径，[latex]k_1[/latex] 为工艺相关系数。更小的特征尺寸需要更短的波长或更高的数值孔径。

铝热剂具有极高的活化能，使其在室温下稳定且难以点燃。点火需要达到约 1,300 °C (2,400 °F) 的温度。这通常不是通过直接火焰来实现的，而是借助中间高温引发剂（例如燃烧的镁带或专门设计的烟火引信）来实现的，这些引发剂可提供引发反应所需的局部能量。

Planck's relation is a fundamental equation in quantum mechanics that quantifies the energy of a single photon. The formula is [latex]E = h\nu[/latex], where [latex]E[/latex] is the energy of the photon, [latex]\nu[/latex] (nu) is its frequency, and [latex]h[/latex] is the Planck constant. This relation establishes the particle-like nature of light, showing that its energy is quantized in discrete packets, or quanta.

大闪蝶翅膀上那鲜艳夺目的蓝色并非由色素产生，而是由结构性着色所致。翅膀上覆盖着形似微型圣诞树的纳米结构，这些结构通过薄膜干涉和衍射选择性地反射蓝光，同时吸收其他波长的光，从而创造出一种强烈的、随角度变化的色彩。

氧平衡 (OB%) 是衡量炸药氧化程度的指标。如果一个炸药分子含有足够的氧，能够将其所有碳转化为二氧化碳，所有氢转化为水，则其氧平衡为零。正的氧平衡表示氧过剩，而负的氧平衡则表示氧不足，这会影响能量输出和副产物。

Q10温度系数是估算温度对物质劣化速率影响的经验法则。对于许多化学和生物系统而言，温度每升高10°C（18°F），反应速率大约翻倍。这一原理被广泛应用于预测食品和药品在不同热条件下的保质期变化。

Energy is not continuous but comes in discrete packets called quanta. The energy [latex]E[/latex] of a single quantum of electromagnetic radiation (a photon) is directly proportional to its frequency [latex]\nu[/latex]. This relationship is defined by the Planck-Einstein relation, [latex]E = h\nu[/latex], where [latex]h[/latex] is the Planck constant. This concept fundamentally challenged classical physics.