盖-吕萨克定律（压力-温度定律）

它是第一个电池，通过堆叠成对的不同金属片（例如锌和铜），并用浸过盐水的布隔开，从而产生直流电。每对金属片构成一个原电池，将它们串联起来可以提高总电压。这种结构首次实现了化学能向电能的连续转化，为现代电化学奠定了基础。

The Voltaic pile established the principle of adding voltages by connecting electrochemical cells in series. Each zinc-copper pair, or cell, generates a characteristic electromotive force (EMF) of approximately 0.76 volts. By physically stacking these cells, Volta demonstrated that the total voltage across the pile is the sum of the individual EMFs of each cell, as described by [latex]V_{total} = n \times V_{cell}[/latex].

菲涅尔区是位于发射器和接收器之间的一系列共焦长椭球区域之一。主菲涅尔区的边界是一个椭球面，在该椭球面上，从发射器到接收器表面某一点的路径长度比直接路径长半个波长，从而导致180度的相位偏移。

伏打电池的主要缺陷在于电极极化。在运行过程中，铜阴极产生的氢气会在其表面形成一层气泡绝缘层。这层气泡会增加电池的内阻，并减少可用于反应的表面积。因此，电池的电压和电流输出在开始使用后不久就会显著下降。

Electromotive force ([latex]\mathcal{E}[/latex]) is the work done per unit of electric charge by a non-electrical source, such as a battery or generator. Despite its name, it is not a mechanical force but an electric potential, measured in volts. It represents the energy converted from another form (chemical, mechanical) into electrical energy as a charge traverses the source.

The electric current in a Voltaic pile is produced by a redox reaction. At the zinc anode, zinc metal is oxidized, releasing two electrons per atom ([latex]Zn \rightarrow Zn^{2+} + 2e^{-}[/latex]). These electrons travel through the external circuit to the copper cathode. There, hydrogen ions from the aqueous electrolyte are reduced, forming hydrogen gas ([latex]2H^{+} + 2e^{-} \rightarrow H_2[/latex]).

Absolute humidity ([latex]d_v[/latex]) is the total mass of water vapor ([latex]m_{H_2O}[/latex]) present in a given volume of air ([latex]V_{air}[/latex]). It is expressed as grams of water vapor per cubic meter of air ([latex]g/m^3[/latex]). The formula is [latex]d_v = \frac{m_{H_2O}}{V_{air}}[/latex]. Unlike relative humidity, it is not dependent on the air's temperature, but it is affected by changes in air pressure or volume.

1801年，约翰·威廉·里特（Johann Wilhelm Ritter）观察到，太阳光谱中紫色端以外的不可见射线比紫光本身更快地使浸有氯化银的纸张变暗。这证明了可见光谱之外存在一种光，他将其命名为“氧化射线”，以与前一年发现的“热射线”（红外线）相对照。

The ideal Stirling cycle is a closed regenerative thermodynamic cycle comprising four distinct processes: isothermal expansion, isochoric heat removal, isothermal compression, and isochoric heat addition. The working fluid is permanently contained. Its theoretical thermal efficiency equals the Carnot cycle efficiency, given by [latex]\eta_{th} = 1 - \frac{T_C}{T_H}[/latex], where [latex]T_H[/latex] and [latex]T_C[/latex] are the absolute temperatures of the hot and cold reservoirs.