太阳能电池板老化因素：主要影响因素

A non-Newtonian fluid is one whose viscosity changes under an applied shear stress. Unlike a Newtonian fluid where viscosity is constant, its flow properties are not described by a linear relationship between shear stress ([latex]\tau[/latex]) and shear rate ([latex]\dot{gamma}[/latex]). This dependency can manifest as shear-thinning (viscosity decreases with stress) or shear-thickening (viscosity increases with stress).

Electrochemical potential, [latex]\bar{\mu}_i[/latex], quantifies the total energy of a charged species `i` in a system. It combines the chemical potential, [latex]\mu_i[/latex], which accounts for concentration and intrinsic properties, with the electrostatic potential energy, [latex]z_i F \phi[/latex]. The formula is [latex]\bar{\mu}_i = \mu_i + z_i F \phi[/latex], where [latex]z_i[/latex] is the ion's charge, [latex]F[/latex] is the Faraday constant, and [latex]phi[/latex] is the local electric potential.

The oxidation state, or oxidation number, is a hypothetical charge that an atom would have if all its bonds to different atoms were 100% ionic. It provides a way to track electron transfer in redox reactions. An increase in oxidation state signifies oxidation, while a decrease signifies reduction. This formalism simplifies the analysis of complex chemical reactions.

A solar cell's core is a p-n junction, an interface between p-type and n-type semiconductor materials. This junction creates a built-in electric field in a depletion region. When photons with sufficient energy strike the semiconductor, they create electron-hole pairs. The electric field separates these charge carriers, driving electrons to the n-side and holes to the p-side, generating a voltage.

Just-in-Time (JIT) is a production strategy aimed at increasing efficiency and decreasing waste by receiving goods only as they are needed in the production process, thereby reducing inventory costs. This method requires precise forecasting and highly coordinated supply chains. The goal is to have the right materials, at the right place, at the right time, in the exact amount.

The Weissenberg effect is a phenomenon in viscoelastic fluids where the fluid climbs up a rotating rod inserted into it. This is contrary to the behavior of Newtonian fluids, which are pushed outwards by centrifugal force, forming a vortex. The effect is caused by normal stress differences that develop in the fluid under shear.

Plasticity is the theory describing the deformation of a solid material undergoing non-reversible changes of shape in response to applied forces. Unlike elasticity, where deformation is recovered upon unloading, plastic deformation is permanent. The theory involves a yield criterion to define the onset of plasticity, a flow rule to describe the evolution of plastic strain, and a hardening rule.

The Courant–Friedrichs–Lewy (CFL) condition is a necessary stability criterion for numerical solutions of hyperbolic partial differential equations using explicit time-integration schemes. It dictates that the time step size must be small enough that information does not travel further than one spatial grid cell per time step. For a 1D case, [latex]C = u \frac{\Delta t}{\Delta x} \le C_{max}[/latex], ensuring numerical stability.

Pitting corrosion is a localized form of corrosion that leads to the creation of small holes, or 'pits,' in a metal. It is one of the most destructive forms because it is difficult to detect, predict, and design against. Pitting can cause catastrophic failure of a structure with only a small percentage of total mass loss.

Takt time is the maximum time allowed to produce a product to meet customer demand. It is calculated by dividing the net available production time by the customer demand over that period. The formula is [latex]T = \frac{T_a}{D}[/latex], where T is the Takt time, Ta is the net available time, and D is the customer demand.

High-Efficiency Particulate Air (HEPA) and Ultra-Low Particulate Air (ULPA) filters are critical cleanroom components. A HEPA filter must remove at least 99.97% of airborne particles 0.3 micrometers (µm) in diameter. An ULPA filter is even more efficient, removing 99.999% of particles 0.12 µm or larger. They work via a combination of interception, impaction, and diffusion.

Cellular respiration is a series of redox reactions where organic molecules, like glucose, are oxidized to release energy. Glucose ([latex]C_6H_{12}O_6[/latex]) is oxidized to [latex]CO_2[/latex], while oxygen ([latex]O_2[/latex]) is reduced to water ([latex]H_2O[/latex]). This process transfers electrons through an electron transport chain, creating a proton gradient that drives the synthesis of ATP, the cell's primary energy currency.

The Finite Element Method (FEM) is a powerful numerical technique for solving complex engineering and physics problems described by partial differential equations. It works by discretizing a continuous domain into a set of smaller, simpler subdomains called 'finite elements'. This allows for the approximate numerical solution of problems in structural analysis, heat transfer, fluid flow, and electromagnetism.

FMEA is a systematic, bottom-up, inductive method for identifying potential failure modes in a system, product, or process. For each failure mode, it assesses the potential effects or consequences, their severity, likelihood of occurrence, and the ability to detect them. The goal is to prioritize and mitigate high-risk failure modes before they occur.

Sheaf cohomology is a central tool in modern algebraic geometry for studying global properties of geometric spaces. For a sheaf [latex]\mathcal{F}[/latex] on a space [latex]X[/latex], the cohomology groups [latex]H^i(X, \mathcal{F})[/latex] are vector spaces whose dimensions provide important invariants. The group [latex]H^0[/latex] represents global sections, while higher groups [latex]H^i[/latex] for [latex]i > 0[/latex] measure the obstructions to patching together local sections into a global one.