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Bayesian inference is a statistical method where Bayes' theorem is used to update the probability for a hypothesis as more evidence or information becomes available. It is a central tenet of Bayesian statistics. The core idea is expressed as: posterior probability is proportional to the product of the prior probability and the likelihood, [latex]p(\theta|D) \propto p(D|\theta)p(\theta)[/latex], where [latex]\theta[/latex] is the parameter and D is the data.

A Fourier series decomposes any periodic function or signal into a sum of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and cosines. For a function [latex]s(x)[/latex] with period [latex]P[/latex], the series is given by [latex]s(x) \approx \frac{a_0}{2} + \sum_{n=1}^{\infty} \left[ a_n \cos\left(\frac{2\pi n x}{P}\right) + b_n \sin\left(\frac{2\pi n x}{P}\right)\right][/latex]. The terms [latex]a_n[/latex] and [latex]b_n[/latex] are the Fourier coefficients.

Theorema Egregium (Latin for "Remarkable Theorem") states that the Gaussian curvature of a surface is an intrinsic property. This means it depends only on how distances are measured on the surface itself, not on how the surface is embedded in three-dimensional space. A flat sheet of paper can be rolled into a cylinder but not a sphere without stretching.

De Morgan's laws are a pair of transformation rules in Boolean algebra that are fundamental to digital circuit design. The first law states that the negation of a conjunction is the disjunction of the negations: [latex]\neg(P \land Q) \iff (\neg P) \lor (\neg Q)[/latex]. The second states that the negation of a disjunction is the conjunction of the negations: [latex]\neg(P \lor Q) \iff (\neg P) \land (\neg Q)[/latex].

A differentiable manifold is a topological space that is locally similar to Euclidean space, allowing calculus to be applied. Each point has a neighborhood that is homeomorphic to an open subset of [latex]\mathbb{R}^n[/latex]. These local coordinate systems, called charts, are related by smooth transition functions, forming an atlas that defines the manifold's differentiable structure.

تعتمد الإلكترونيات الرقمية على الجبر البولياني، وهو نظام منطقي رياضي وضعه جورج بول. يستخدم هذا النظام قيمتين، عادةً 0 و1 (أو خطأ وصواب)، وثلاث عمليات أساسية: "و" (الربط)، و"أو" (الفصل)، و"ليس" (النفي). تتوافق هذه العمليات مباشرةً مع البوابات المنطقية التي تُشكل اللبنات الأساسية لجميع الدوائر الرقمية.

A standard approach for approximating solutions to overdetermined systems by finding model parameters that minimize the sum of the squared differences between observed and predicted values. This sum is known as the sum of squared residuals (SSR). The goal is to find the parameters [latex]\hat{\beta}[/latex] that minimize the function [latex]S(\beta) = \sum_{i=1}^{n} (y_i - x_i^T \beta)^2[/latex].

A fundamental second-order linear parabolic partial differential equation describing heat distribution or other diffusion processes. Its canonical form is [latex]\frac{partial u}{partial t} = \alpha \nabla^2 u[/latex], where [latex]u(\vec{x},t)[/latex] is temperature, [latex]t[/latex] is time, and [latex]\alpha[/latex] is thermal diffusivity. Solutions model how an initial temperature distribution evolves, smoothing out irregularities over time and approaching a steady state.

The coefficients for the Fourier series of a function [latex]s(x)[/latex] with period [latex]P[/latex] are calculated using integral formulas. The DC component is [latex]a_0 = \frac{2}{P} \int_{P} s(x) , dx[/latex]. The cosine coefficients are [latex]a_n = \frac{2}{P} int_{P} s(x) \cos\left(\frac{2pi n x}{P}\right) , dx[/latex], and the sine coefficients are [latex]b_n = \frac{2}{P} \int_{P} s(x) \sin\left(\frac{2\pi n x}{P}\right) , dx[/latex] for [latex]n ge 1[/latex].

A fundamental solution of a linear partial differential operator [latex]L[/latex] is a solution to the equation [latex]Lu = delta(x)[/latex], where [latex]delta(x)[/latex] is the Dirac delta function. It represents the response of the system to a point source or impulse. Once known, the solution to the inhomogeneous equation [latex]Lu = f(x)[/latex] can be found by convolution: [latex]u(x) = (G * f)(x)[/latex], where [latex]G[/latex] is the fundamental solution.

The Gauss-Bonnet theorem connects the geometry of a compact two-dimensional surface to its topology. It states that the integral of the Gaussian curvature [latex]K[/latex] over the entire surface [latex]M[/latex] is equal to [latex]2\pi[/latex] times the Euler characteristic [latex]\chi(M)[/latex] of the surface. The formula is [latex]\int_M K \, dA = 2\pi \chi(M)[/latex].

تشير الدقة إلى مدى قرب القيمة المقاسة من قيمة معيارية أو قيمة حقيقية معروفة. أما الضبط فيشير إلى مدى تقارب قياسين أو أكثر. قد يكون نظام القياس دقيقًا ولكنه غير دقيق، أو دقيقًا ولكنه غير مضبوط، أو كليهما، أو لا هذا ولا ذاك. هذان المفهومان مستقلان عن بعضهما في نظرية القياس.

الهندسة الريمانية هي فرع من فروع الهندسة التفاضلية يدرس المتشعبات الريمانية، وهي متشعبات ملساء مزودة بمقياس ريمان. هذا المقياس هو مجموعة من الضربات الداخلية في الفضاءات المماسّة، تتغير بسلاسة من نقطة إلى أخرى. يسمح هذا بتعريف مفاهيم هندسية محلية مثل الزاوية، وطول المنحنيات، ومساحة السطح، والحجم، مما يؤدي إلى مفهوم عام للانحناء.

In linear algebra, the rank-nullity theorem states that for any linear map [latex]T: V \to W[/latex] between finite-dimensional vector spaces, the dimension of its domain [latex]V[/latex] is the sum of its rank (the dimension of its image) and its nullity (the dimension of its kernel). The formula is [latex]\dim(V) = \text{rank}(T) + \text{nullity}(T)[/latex].