The Functional Unit in LCA

Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA) is a systematic methodology for evaluating the environmental impacts associated with all stages of a product's life. This "cradle-to-grave" or "cradle-to-cradle" analysis considers raw material extraction, processing, manufacturing, distribution, use, repair, maintenance, and final disposal or recycling. It quantifies inputs like energy and raw materials and outputs like emissions to air, water, and soil.

B2B business models are often categorized as either vertical or horizontal. A vertical B2B model focuses on a single industry or 'vertical,' providing specialized products and services tailored to that sector's unique needs (e.g., software for dentists). In contrast, a horizontal B2B model offers a product or service that is applicable across multiple industries (e.g., accounting software or office supplies).

The three pillars of sustainability, also known as the triple bottom line, is a framework that posits true sustainability requires balancing three main dimensions: environmental, social, and economic. Environmental sustainability focuses on preserving natural resources and ecosystems. Social sustainability addresses equity, community well-being, and human rights. Economic sustainability ensures long-term financial viability without compromising the other two pillars.

ISO 14644-1 classifies cleanroom air cleanliness by the maximum allowable concentration of airborne particles. The classification, from ISO 1 to ISO 9, is determined by the formula [latex]C_N = 10^N \times (\frac{0.1}{D})^{2.08}[/latex], where [latex]C_N[/latex] is the max concentration of particles/m³, N is the ISO class number, and D is the particle size in µm.

Malcolm Gladwell's "Tipping Point" theory posits that social epidemics are driven by three key types of people: Mavens, who are information specialists; Connectors, who have vast social networks; and Salesmen, who are persuasive communicators. The spread of an idea, product, or message reaches a critical mass or "tipping point" when these three archetypes are effectively engaged.

Cradle-to-Cradle (C2C) is a design philosophy that models human industry on nature's processes. It views materials as "nutrients" circulating in closed-loop systems. The framework distinguishes between two cycles: the biological cycle, for biodegradable materials that can safely return to the soil, and the technical cycle, for materials that are continuously reused or upcycled in industrial processes without losing quality.

ISO 9001 is the world's most recognized standard for Quality Management Systems (QMS). It provides a framework and a set of principles that ensure a common-sense approach to the management of an organization to consistently satisfy customers and other stakeholders. It is based on seven quality management principles, including a strong customer focus and a process-based approach.

LCA system boundaries define which life cycle stages are included in the assessment. A "cradle-to-grave" analysis covers the entire product life, from raw material extraction through manufacturing, use, and final disposal. In contrast, a "cradle-to-gate" assessment is a partial LCA that ends when the product leaves the factory gate, excluding the use and disposal phases.

Solid-state batteries replace the liquid or polymer gel electrolyte of conventional batteries with a solid, ion-conducting material, such as a ceramic or solid polymer. This design aims to improve safety by eliminating flammable liquid electrolytes and to increase energy density and lifespan by enabling the use of high-capacity anodes, particularly pure lithium metal.

Viral marketing describes any marketing strategy that encourages individuals to pass on a marketing message to others, creating the potential for exponential growth in the message's exposure and influence. Like viruses, such strategies take advantage of rapid multiplication to explode the message from person to person. It is a form of amplified word-of-mouth, often facilitated by the internet.

A Carbon Nanotube Field-Effect Transistor (CNTFET) utilizes a single carbon nanotube (CNT) or an array of CNTs as the channel material instead of bulk silicon. Depending on its chirality (the arrangement of its graphene lattice), a CNT can be either metallic or semiconducting, making it a versatile building block for nanoelectronic devices with superior performance potential.

The Peer-to-Peer (P2P) platform model is a technological and business framework that directly connects individuals to transact with each other, bypassing traditional intermediaries. In the sharing economy, these platforms facilitate the exchange of goods, services, or capital. They typically provide the underlying infrastructure, including search functionalities, payment processing systems, and crucial reputation and trust-building mechanisms.

A fundamental distinction in word-of-mouth marketing (WOMM) is between "organic" and "amplified" WOM. Organic WOM occurs naturally when customers become advocates simply because they are happy with a product and have a natural desire to share their support. Amplified WOM occurs when marketers launch campaigns designed to encourage or accelerate WOM, such as through influencer outreach or referral programs.

The Net Promoter Score (NPS) is a widely used market research metric that measures customer loyalty and their willingness to engage in word-of-mouth marketing. It is based on a single survey question: "How likely is it that you would recommend our company/product/service to a friend or colleague?" The score is calculated as the percentage of "Promoters" minus the percentage of "Detractors."